Synopsis
11 WIND ENERGY.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Harvesting Energy from Wind.- 11.3 Wind Resource Map.- 11.4 Land Area Requirement.- 11.5 Energy and Power from Wind.- 11.5.1 Betz Limit.- 11.6 Capacity Factor for a Wind Turbine.- 11.7 Energy Production.- 11.8 Turbine Types.- 11.8.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT).- 11.8.1.1 Wind Turbine Components.- 11.8.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs).- 11.8.2.1 Darrieus Wind Turbine.- 11.8.2.2 Savonius Wind Turbine.- 11.8.2.3 Other Lift-Type Vertical Axis Configurations.- 11.9 Comparison Between Turbines.- 11.10 Cost of Electricity from Wind Energy.- 11.10.1 Payback Time for Wind Energy Systems.- 11.10.2 Cost Reduction Efforts.- 11.11 Effect of Capacity Factor.- 11.12 Industrial Wind Turbines.- 11.13 Basic Principles of Wind Resource Evaluation.- 11.14 Wind Farm.- 11.14.1 Offshore Wind Farm.- 11.15 Small Wind Systems.- 11.16 Low Frequency Noise form Wind Turbines.- 11.16.1 Sound Intensity.- 11.16.2 Sound Pressure.- 11.16.3 The Sound Pressure Level.- 11.17 Wind Energy and Intermittency.- Summary.- References.- Problems.- 12 SOLAR ENERGY.- 12.1 Energy from the Sun.- 12.2 Energy Transfer to the Earth.- 12.2.1 Seasonal Variation.- 12.2.2 Height of the Sun in the Sky.- 12.3 Energy and the Sun.- 12.4 Use of Solar Energy.- 12.4.1 Solar Thermal Energy.- 12.4.1.1 Solar Water Heating.- 12.4.1.2 Space Heating of Buildings.- 12.4.1.3 Space Cooling.- 12.5 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP).- 12.5.1 Trough Systems.- 12.5.2 Power Tower Systems.- 12.5.3 Dish/Engine Systems.- 12.6 Solar Thermal Molten Salt Technology.- 12.7 Photovoltaics.- 12.7.1 PV Theory.- 12.7.2 The Efficiency of Photovoltaic Cells.- 12.7.2.1 Theoretical Efficiency.- 12.7.7.2 Experimental Determination of PV Efficiency.- 12.7.3 The "Sun" Value.- 12.7.4 Effect of Thickness of the Cell.- 12.7.5 The Effect of Temperature.- 12.7.6 Effect of Dopant Concentration.- 12.8 From Cells to Arrays.- 12.9 Solar Cell Materials.- 12.9.1 Semiconducting Materials for Solar Cell.- 12.9.1.1 Silicon.- 12.9.1.2 Gallium Arsenide.- 12.10 Multijunction Cells.- 12.11 Hybrid Power Systems.- 12.12 Solar Lighting.- Summary.- References.- Problems.- 13 HYDROPOWER.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Hydropower Systems.- 13.3 Hydropower System Construction Methods.- 13.3.1 Impoundment.- 13.3.1.1 Dam.- 13.3.1.2 Spillways.- 13.4 Hydroturbine.- 13.4.1 Impulse Turbine.- 13.4.1.1 Pelton Turbine.- 13.4.1.2 Turgo Wheel Turbine.- 13.4.1.3 Cross-Flow or Ossberger Tutbine.- 13.4.2 Reaction Turbine.- 13.4.2.1 Propeller Turbine.- 13.4.2.2 Francis Turbine.- 13.4.2.3 Kinetic Energy Turbine.- 13.5 Selection of Turbines.- 13.6 Run-Of-The-River Hydropower Systems.- 13.7 Small Hydroelectric Power System.- 13.7.1 Components of a Small Hydro Power System.- 13.8 Micro-Head Hydropower Systems.- 13.8.1 Selection of Turbine for Small or Micro Head Systems.- 13.9 Pumped Storage Hydropower System.- 13.10 Calculation of Power from Water Flow.- 13.10.1 Local Head Losses.- 13.10.1.1 Head Loss Equations for Closed Channels.- 13.10.2 Head Losses in Open Channels.- 13.11 Hydropower System Efficiency.- 13.12 Fish Ladder and Fish Passage in Hydropower Systems.- Summary.- Reference.- Problem.- 14 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Resource Identification.- 14.3 Geothermal Systems.- 14.4 Applications.- 14.4.1 Electricity Generation.- 14.4.1.1 Hydrothermal Fluid.- 14.4.1.2 Geopressurized Brines.- 14.4.1.3 Enhanced (Engineered) Geothermal Systems.- 14.4.1.4 Magma.- 14.4.2 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy.- 14.4.3 Ambient Ground Heat/Geothermal Heat Pump.- 14.4.3.1 Closed-Loop Systems.- 14.4.3.2 Open-Loop System.- Summary.- References.- Problem.- 15 OCEAN ENERGY.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Wave Power.- 15.3 Theory.- 15.3.1 Linear Wave Theory.- 15.3.2 Energy Transport and Power.- 15.3.2.1 Deep-Water Waves.- 15.3.2.2 Shallow-Water Waves.- 15.3.2.3 Intermediate Depths.- 15.3.3 Applicability of Linear Wave Theory.- 15.3.4 Significant Wave Height.- 15.4 Wave Power.- 15.4.1 Tapered Channel (TAPCHAN).- 15.4.2 Ter
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