Safety by Design

Safety-critical systems with more digitalization, automation, and AI require integration of human factors to ensure safety, efficiency, and meaningful human control. Across sectors such as aviation, maritime, energy, transportation, and remote operations, accident investigations repeatedly show that failures often stem not from technology alone but from inadequate scoping, poor human-centered design, alarm overload, fragmented automation, and organizational conditions that leave operators unprepared during critical situations. Disasters such as the Boeing 737 MAX accidents demonstrate how safety can be compromised when humans and systems are misaligned, while successful recoveries (such as the US Airways Flight 1549 landing on the Hudson River) show the vital role of design-supported human performance in demanding conditions.

Safety by Design: Human-Centered Approaches to AI, Automation, and Remote Operations explores the relationship between human capabilities, organizational readiness, and complex technical systems. It offers best practices for designing safety-critical systems that integrate human factors from concept to operation. The book introduces Meaningful Human Control, a framework ensuring humans retain authority, awareness, and intervention ability, aligning with emerging EU AI regulations. Readers will learn practical methods to design systems with usability, transparency, and oversight, alongside insights into automation, accident analysis, and supporting operators under stress. These principles help create safer, more resilient, and trustworthy systems.

This book has been written for human factors specialists, system designers, engineers, safety professionals, regulators, and project managers working on safety-critical applications involving automation, AI, or remote operations.

The Open Access version of this book, available at http://www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a creative commons [(CC BY-ND)] 4.0 license.

Frøy Birte Bjørneseth is an Associate Professor in Human Factors in the Department of Ocean Operations and Civil Engineering at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Ålesund, Norway. She holds a PhD in Computer Science, with a focus on human–machine interaction and human factors in the maritime environment. She is also a Principal Engineer in Human Factors with 18 years of experience at Rolls-Royce Marine (now Kongsberg Maritime AS), a worldwide supplier of maritime equipment. Dr. Bjørneseth’s research focuses on human factors in maritime operations, with a primary focus on safety-critical applications and a holistic, human-centered design approach in operational environments. Her approach emphasizes usability, safety, and operational insight, contributing to the development of human-centered maritime technologies.

Stig Ole Johnsen is a Senior Safety Scientist, Lecturer at NTNU (Norwegian University of Science and Technology) and NORD University in Norway. He holds a PhD and a Master’s degree in Technology Management and Science. His research focuses on safety science, human factors, and design in critical systems, with expertise in remote operations, automation, and AI in safety-critical environments. Dr. Johnsen leads the Human Factors in Control network in Norway and has contributed to numerous accident investigations. His work spans multiple industries, including oil and gas, maritime operations, and autonomous systems. He has published extensively on meaningful human control in automation, the verification and validation of safety-critical systems, and human factors in remote operations. His expertise bridges theoretical safety science with practical applications in increasingly automated environments.

Ole Andreas Alsos is a Professor of Interaction Design at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and serves as Head of the Shore Control Lab. He holds an MSc in Computer Science and a PhD in Computer and Information Science from NTNU. Dr. Alsos specializes in human-computer interaction, with a focus on maritime technology, autonomous ships, and the design of shore control centers. His research explores how to enhance situational awareness and safety in maritime operations through innovative interface design. As leader of the Shore Control Lab, he oversees research on autonomous vessel monitoring and control systems, including work with the autonomous ferry prototypes milliAmpere1 and milliAmpere2.

Vidar Hepsø is a Principal Researcher at Equinor Research and Technology and an Adjunct Professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). He earned his PhD in Social Anthropology from NTNU and specializes in integrated and remote operations, as well as human factors in technological environments. At Equinor, Dr. Hepsø serves as Human Factor Integration Lead, focusing on scaling control room solutions and remote operations for offshore wind across Norway, the UK, the US, and Poland. His research examines how new information and communication technologies enable innovative collaborative practices in industrial settings. Dr. Hepsø has published extensively on socio-material practices, information infrastructure development, and digitalization challenges in the energy sector.

Dr. Gunhild B. Sætren is a professor and manager at the Arctic Safety Centre at the University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), Norway. She specializes in safety psychology and human factors, with extensive experience in high-risk contexts and a focus on human–machine interaction. She manages the Arctic Safety Centre at the University Centre in Svalbard, overseeing research projects on human performance in extreme environments. She has also been awarded the title of Excellent Teaching Practitioner for her research and teaching in safety psychology, safety management, and human factors over many years. Consequently, she is a highly sought-after lecturer at several universities.